Sometime in April 2009, the Appellant received documents from the 6th Respondent showing that her three children had been converted to Islam on 2 April 2009 and that the Pengarah Jabatan Agama Islam Perak had issued three certificates of conversion to Islam on her three children. The documents also showed that the Registrar of Muallaf had registered the children as Muslims. High Court for an order of certiorari to quash the certificates of conversion to Islam of the children. The Appellant contended that the issuance of the certificates of conversion to Islam by 7 the Registrar of Muallafs was ultra vires and illegal. It contravened the provisions of sections 96 and 106(b) of the Administration of the Religion of Islam (Perak) Enactment 2004 (the Perak Enactment), sections 5 and 11 of the Guardianship and Infants Act 1961 (the GIA) and Article 12(4) read together with Article 8 (2) of the Federal Constitution. Court of Ipoh for custody of the three children pursuant to section 88 of the LRA. On 11 March 2010, the High Court granted the Appellant the custody of the three children. The custody order also directed the 6th Respondent to deliver the youngest child, Prasana Diksa, to the Appellant immediately. For ease of reference the first question is :- Whether the High Court has the exclusive jurisdiction pursuant to section 23, 24 and 25 and the Schedule of the Courts of Judicature Act 1964 (read together with Order 53 of the Rules of Court 2012) and/or its inherent jurisdiction to review the actions of the Registrar of Muallafs or his delegate acting as public authorities in exercising statutory powers vested by the Administration of the Religion of Islam (Perak) Enactment. 8 PROCEEDINGS IN THE COURTS BELOW Appellant’s judicial review application. The learned Judicial Commissioner (JC), Justice Lee Swee Seng characterised the application as a challenge on the constitutionality of the Respondent’s actions, in particular in relation to the fundamental liberties provisions in the Federal Constitution. The learned JC noted that whereas civil courts are creatures of the Constitution, syariah courts as creatures of State law do not have jurisdiction to determine the constitutionality of matters within its purview. Court of Appeal. The majority rejected the learned JC’s 9 approach in determining the constitutionality of the conversion process. The Court of Appeal held that the High Court had no power to question the decision of the Registrar of Muallafs or to consider the Registrar’s compliance with the statutory requirements of s.96 and 106 of the Perak Enactment. Reference was made to the powers of the Registrar in registering under section 100, and conclusiveness of the Certificates of Conversion, as proof of the facts started in s.101(2). The Court of Appeal took the position that the fact that a person has been registered in the Registrar’s of Muallafs as stated in the Certificates of Conversion is proof that the conversion process had been done to the satisfaction of the Registrar. Submissions at the Federal Court Malaysia, learned counsel for the Appellant submitted that Article 121 (1A) does not overrule the general jurisdiction of the High Courts, or enhance the jurisdiction of the Syariah Courts. It was argued that the purpose of the clause, was to prevent civil courts from intervening in lawful decisions made by the Syariah Court. Counsel characterised the subject matter in the present case as one of administrative law, namely whether the Registrar of Muallaffs had acted within the scope of his statutory powers in issuing the certificate of conversion. It was contended that the power of judicial review over the administrative actions of public authorities lies within the 10 exclusive jurisdiction of the civil courts, and is inherent in the judicial power constitutionally vested therein. State Legislatures under powers delineated by the Ninth Schedule in the Constitution, is akin to inferior tribunals. Counsel for the Appellant emphasised that the jurisdiction of Syariah Courts is confined to cases where all parties are Muslims, and cannot be exercised over the non-Muslim Appellant in this case. It was argued that conversion does not absolve a person from his obligations under the personal law to which he was formerly subject; in such cases the civil court retains jurisdiction. Islamic Religious Affairs Department of Perak, the Registrar of Muallafs and the Perak Government (the Respondents in Appeal No.17), the learned Senior Federal Counsel on behalf of the Ministry of Education and the Government of Malaysia (the Respondents in Appeal No. 18), and learned counsel for the 6th Respondent husband (the Respondent in Appeal No.19). It is the main contention of the Respondents that under Article 121 (1A), the High Court has no jurisdiction to hear matters within the jurisdiction of the Syariah Courts. 11 Islam is characterised as a strictly religious matter. The Administration of the Religion of Islam (Perak) Enactment expressly confers jurisdiction upon the Syariah Court to declare the status of a Muslim; matters of Islamic law are also specially demarcated as falling under the Syariah Courts’ jurisdiction pursuant to the Ninth Schedule of the Federal Constitution. Since the subject matter does not lie within the High Court’s jurisdiction, it was submitted that the High Court cannot exercise its power to review the actions of the Registrar of Muallafs in the present case. If the Appellant is dissatisfied with the Registrar’s decision, the appropriate route would be to file a challenge in the Syariah Court. Judicial Power of the High Courts Judicial Power of the Federation 121(1). There shall be two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction and status, namely – High Court of Malaya and shall have its principal registry at such place in the States of Malaya as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may determine; and Sabah and Sarawak as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may determine; 12 And such inferior courts as may be provided by federal law; and the High Courts and inferior courts shall have such jurisdiction and powers as may be conferred by or under federal law. Syariah Courts. BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE CONSTITUTION Constitutional principles Reference re Senate Reform, 2014 SCC 32 (at [25]-[26]):- “The constitution implements a structure of government and must be understood by reference to ‘the constitutional text itself, the historical context, and previous judicial interpretations of constitutional meaning …’ The rules of constitutional interpretation require that constitutional documents be interpreted in a broad and purposive manner and placed in their proper linguistic, philosophic, and historical contexts… Generally, constitutional interpretation must be 13 informed by the foundational principles of the Constitution, which include principles such as federalism, democracy, the protection of minorities, as well as constitutionalism and the rule of law… These rules and principles of interpretation have led this Court to conclude that the Constitution should be viewed as having an ‘internal architecture’, or ‘basic constitutional structure’… The notion of architecture expresses the principles that ‘[t]he individual elements of the Constitution are linked to the others, and must be interpreted by reference to the structure of the Constitution as a whole’… In other words, the Constitution must be interpreted with a view to discerning the structure of government that it seeks to implement. The assumptions that underlie the text and the manner in our interpretation understanding and application of the text.” (citation omitted) (Emphasis added) Quebec, [1998] 2 SCR 217. The Court rejected the notion that the system is one of simple, majority rule (at [73]-[74]):- “An understanding of the scope and importance of the principles of the rule of law and constitutionalism is aided by acknowledging explicitly why a constitution is entrenched beyond the reach of simple majority rule. There are three overlapping reasons. 14 First, a constitution may provide an added safeguard for fundamental human rights and individual freedoms which might otherwise be susceptible to government interference. Although democratic government is generally solicitous of those rights, there are occasions when the majority will be tempted to ignore fundamental rights in order to accomplish collective goals more easily or effectively. Constitutional entrenchment ensures that those rights will be given due regard and protection. Second a constitution may seek to ensure that vulnerable minority groups are endowed with the institutions and rights necessary to maintain and promote their identities against the assimilative pressures of the majority. And third, a constitution may provide for a division of political power that allocates political power amongst different levels of government. That purpose would be defeated if one of those democratically elected levels of government could usurp the powers of the other simply by exercising its legislative power to allocate additional political power to itself unilaterally. (Emphasis added) “However, we highlight that even though those positions were the product of negotiation and political compromise, that does not render them unprincipled. Rather, such a concern reflects a broader principle related to the protection of minority rights. Undoubtedly, the three other constitutional principles inform the scope and operation of the specific provisions that protect the rights of minorities. We emphasise rights that the 15 protection of minority rights is itself an independent principle underlying our constitutional order.” Westminster model, is the separation of powers between the branches of government. This was recognized in this country in earlier cases. In the Singapore High Court case of Mohammad Faizal bin Sabtu v. Public Prosecutor [2012] SGHC 163, Chan Sek Keong CJ said:- …”Likewise under the Singapore Constitution, the sovereign power of Singapore is shared among the trinity of constitutional organs, viz, the legislature (comprising the President of Singapore and the Singapore Parliament), the Executive (the Singapore government) and the Judiciary (the Judges of the Supreme Court and the Subordinate Courts). The principle of separation of powers, whether conceived as a sharing or a division of sovereign power between three organs of state, is therefore part of the basic structure of the Singapore Constitution.” The Role of the Judiciary Lempah Enterprise Sdn Bhd [1979] 1 MLJ 135, Raja Azlan 16 Shah Ag CJ (as his Royal Highness then was) expressed in a passage which has remained inviolable, that:- “… Unfettered discretion is a contradiction in terms. Every legal power must have legal limits, otherwise there is dictatorship. In particular, it is a stringent requirement that a discretion should be exercised for a proper purpose, and that it should not be exercised unreasonably. In other words, every discretion cannot be free from legal restraint, where it is wrongly exercised, it becomes the duty of the court to intervene. The courts are the only defence of the liberty of the subject against departmental aggression ….” (Emphasis added) Supreme Court in Trial Lawyer’s Association of British Columbia v British Columbia (Attorney General) 2014 SCC 59 at 39, referring to the provisions in the Constitution Act 1867 on the appointment of judges :- “The section 96 judicial function and the rule of law are inextricably intertwined. As Lamer CJ stated in MacMillan Bloedel, “in the constitutional arrangements passed on to us by the British and recognized by the preamble to the Constitution Act 1867, the provisional superior courts are the foundation of the rule of law itself” (para 37). The very rationale for the provision is said to be” the maintenance of the rule of law through the protection of the judicial role”: Provincial Judges Reference, at para 88. As access to justice is fundamental to the rule of law, and the rule of law is fostered by the continued existence of the s.96 courts, it is only natural that s.96 provide some degree of constitutional protection for access to justice.” 17 Existing the European Union [2017] UKSC 5, the UK Supreme Court examined a series of historical statutes of “particular importance” and held at [42]: “The independence of the judiciary was formally recognised in these statutes. In the broadest sense, the role of the judiciary is to uphold and further the rule of law; more particularly, judges impartially identify and apply the law in every case brought before the courts. That is why and how these proceedings are being decided.” Attorney General [2005] UKHL 56. The ambit of the court’s power in this regard is considered not subservient to but of equal importance as the sovereignty of Parliament (at [51]):- “This question of statutory interpretation is properly cognizable by a court of law even though it relates to the legislative process. Statutes create law. The proper interpretation of a statute is a matter for the courts, not Parliament. This principle is as fundamental in this country’s constitution as the principle that Parliament has exclusive cognizance (jurisdiction) over its own affairs.” (Emphasis added) 18 Appeal in Singapore in Tan Seet Eng v. Attorney General & another matter [2015] SGCA 59 (at [90] and [106]):- “We began this judgment by observing that the specific responsibility for pronouncing on the legality of government actions falls on the Judiciary. It is appropriate at this juncture to parse this. To hold that this is so is not to place the Judiciary in an exalted or superior position relative to the other branches of the government. On the contrary, the Judiciary is one of the three co-equal branches of government. But though the branches of government are co-equal, this is so only in the sense that none is superior to any other while all are subject to the Constitution. Beyond this, it is a fact that each branch of government has separate and distinct responsibilities. In broad terms, the legislature has the power to make the laws of our land, and this power extends even to amending the foundation of our notification, the Constitution. The Executive has the power and the responsibility of governing the country within the framework of the laws established by the legislature. And the Judiciary has the responsibility for the adjudication of controversies which carries with it the power to pronounce authoritatively and conclusively on the meaning of the Constitution and all other laws. It is the nature of this latter responsibility that results in the Judiciary being tasked with the role of pronouncing on the legality of government actions. … In keeping with this, even for matters falling within the category of ‘high policy,’ the courts can inquire into whether decisions are made within the scope of the relevant legal power or duty 19 and arrives at in a legal manner. (De Smith’s Judicial Review at para 1-035). Indeed, this is apparent in Yong Vui Kong at [63] where Chong J commented that there would be a judicial remedy available if the procedures under clemency process had not been abided by. In such circumstances, the question of defence to the Executive’s discretion simply does not arise.” (emphasis added) Supreme Court held in Reference re Secession of Quebec (supra) (at [75] and [78]):- “In short, it is suggested that as the notion of popular sovereignty underlies the legitimacy of our existing constitutional arrangements, so the same popular sovereignty that originally led to the present Constitution must (it is argued) also permit ‘the people’ in their exercise of popular sovereignty to secede by majority vote alone. However, closer analysis reveals that this argument is unsound, because it misunderstands the meaning of popular sovereignty and the essence of a constitutional democracy. … it might be objected, then, that constitutionalism is therefore incompatible with democratic governments. This would be an erroneous view. Constitutionalism facilitates – indeed, makes possible – a democratic political system by creating an orderly framework within which people may make political decisions. Viewed correctly, constitutionalism and the rule of law are not in conflict with democracy; rather, they are essential to it. 20 Without that relationship, the political will upon which democratic decisions are taken would itself be undermined.” (Emphasis added) Significance of Basic Structure Sarah Shi, ‘The Constitution of Our Constitution, A Vindication of the Basic Structure Doctrine’ Singapore Law Gazette (August 2014) 12). The fundamental underlying principles and the role of the judiciary as outlined above form part of the basic structure of the constitution, being “something fundamental and essential to the political system that is established thereunder” (per Sundaresh Menon CJ in Yong Vui Kong v Public Prosecutor [2015] SG CA 11 [at [71]. It is well settled that features of the basic structure cannot be abrogated or removed by a constitutional amendment (see Kesavananda Bharti v. State of Kerala AIR 1973 SC 1461). Federal Constitution provides that the Constitution is ‘the supreme law of the Federation and any law passed after Merdeka Day which is inconsistent with this Constitution shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.’ This provision is in pari materia with Article 4 of the Singapore Constitution, which 21 was analysed by Chan Sek Keong CJ in Mohammad Faizal (supra) (at [14]-[15]):- “The first fundamental difference is that the UK’s Westminster model is based on the supremacy of the UK Parliament, under which the UK parliament is supreme, with the result that the UK courts have no power to declare an Act of the UK parliament unconstitutional and, hence, null and void. In contrast, Singapore’s Westminster model is based on the supremacy of the Singapore Constitution, with the result that the Singapore courts may declare an Act of the Singapore parliament invalid for inconsistency with the Singapore Constitution and, hence, null and void. Article 4 of the Singapore Constitution expresses this constitutional principle in the following manner:- This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic of Singapore and any law enacted by the legislature after the commencement of this Constitution which is inconsistent with this Constitution shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void. It should be noted that Article 4 of the Singapore Constitution states that any law inconsistent with this Constitution, as opposed to any law inconsistent with any provision of this Constitution is void. The specific form of words used in Article 4 reinforces the principle that the Singapore parliament may not enact a law, and the Singapore government may not do an act, which is inconsistent with the principle of separation of powers to the extent to which that principle is embodied in the Singapore Constitution.” 22 adopted this reasoning in Attorney-General v Taylor [2017] NZ CA 215 (at [47] & [56]-[57]), quoting from Professor Sir William Wade (see ‘The Basis of Legal Sovereignty’ [1955] CLJ 172):- “Nor do the higher courts owe their common law judicial authority to Parliament. As Professor Joseph observes no legislation conferred their general and inherent powers of adjudication. ‘The superior courts acquired their common law powers of adjudication just as Parliament acquired its co-ordinate power of legislation – through historical evolution and adjustment without formal grant of the law.’ … When issues arise affecting the legislature’s legal authority, recourse must be had to the courts, both for an authoritative answer and as a practical necessity. To quote Wade & Forsyth : ‘Even under the British system of undiluted sovereignty, the last word on any question of law rests with the courts.’ This means, as Wade explained elsewhere, that: ‘…it is always for the courts, in the last resort, to say what is a valid Act of Parliament; and that the decision of this question is not determined by any rule of law which can be laid down or altered by any authority outside the courts. It is simply a political fact’.” Tanah Daerah Hulu Langat and another case [2017] 3 MLJ 56) has put beyond a shadow of doubt that judicial power is vested exclusively in the High Courts by virtue of Article 121(1). 23 Judicial independence and the separation of powers are recognised as features in the basic structure of the Constitution. The inherent judicial power of the civil courts under Article 121 (1) is inextricably intertwined with their constitutional role as a check and balance mechanism:- “[88] The Judiciary is thus entrusted with keeping every organ and institution of the state within its legal boundary. Concomitantly the concept of the independence of the Judiciary is the foundation of the principles of the separation of powers. [89] This is essentially the basis upon which rests the edifice of judicial power. [90] The important concepts of judicial power, judicial independence and the separation of powers are as critical as they are sacrosanct in our constitutional framework. [91] The concepts above have been juxtaposed time and again in our judicial determination of issues in judicial reviews. Thus an effective check and balance mechanism is in place to ensure that the Executive and the Legislature act within their constitutional limits and that they uphold the rule of law. The Malaysian apex court had prescribed that the powers of the Executive and the Legislature are limited by the Constitution and that the judiciary acts as a bulwark of the Constitution in ensuring that the powers of the Executive and the Legislature are to be kept within their intended limit (see Pengarah Tanah Dan Galian, Wilayah Persekutuan v. Sri Lempah Enterprise Sdn Bhd [1979] 1 MLJ 135).” 24 Kit Siang v. Dato’ Seri Dr. Mahathir Mohamed [1987] 1 MLJ 383 (at 386-387):- “The courts have a constitutional function to perform and they are the guardians of the constitution within the terms and structure of the Constitution itself; they not only have the power of construction and interpretation of legislation but also the power of judicial review – a concept that pumps through the arteries of every constitutional adjudication and which does not imply the superiority of judges over legislators but of the Constitution over both. The courts are the final arbiter between the individual and the state and between individuals inter se, and in performing their constitutional role they must of necessity and strictly in accordance with the constitution and the law be the ultimate bulwark against unconstitutional legislation or excesses in administrative action.” v. The Queen [1967] 1 AC 259 (at 287):- “Those provisions manifest an intention to secure in the judiciary a freedom from political, legislative and executive control. They are wholly appropriate in a Constitution which intends that judicial power shall be vested only in the judicature. They would be inappropriate in a Constitution by which it was intended that judicial power should be shared by the executive or the legislature. The Constitution’s silence as 25 to the vesting of judicial power is consistent with its remaining, where it had lain for more than a century, in the hands of the judicature.” JUDICIAL REVIEW It is important that this is emphasised. That the Appellant in the question posed is not questioning the conversion itself but the process and legality thereof. The issue to consider is whether the Registrar acted with fidelity to its empowering statute in arriving at his decision; and in answering this question, is there need to exhort to intensive forensic study of the same, and whether a more nuanced approach can be taken. Judicature Act 1964 (the CJA) and Order 53 of the Rules of Court 2012 confer jurisdiction on the High Courts to exercise supervisory powers. The Syariah Courts are not conferred with the power to review administrative decisions of the authorities. High Court shall have the additional powers set out in the Schedule. 26 Provided that all such powers shall be exercised in accordance with any written law or rules of court relating to the same. Paragraph 1 to the Schedule of the CJA reads: Prerogative writs II of the Constitution, or any of them, or for any purpose. Court of India found the power of judicial review to be indispensable in a Constitution that is federal in character:- “This power of judicial review is of paramount importance in a Federal Constitution. Indeed it has been said that the heart and core of a democracy lies in the judicial process ….. The exclusion by Legislature, including a State Legislature, of even that limited judicial review strikes at the basic structure of the Constitution. Parliament cannot expand its amending powers by way of a constitutional amendment, so as to allow incursions into the basic structure of the constitution and to exclude judicial review. 27 “transparent case of transgression of the limitations on the amending power.” The Indian Supreme Court articulated the central importance of judicial review in robust terms worth reproducing in full:- “The power of judicial review is an integral part of our constitutional system and without it, there will be no Government of laws and the rule of law would become a teasing illusion and a promise of unreality. I am of the view that if there is one feature of our Constitution which, more than any other, is basic and fundamental to the maintenance of democracy and the rule of law, it is the power of judicial review and it is unquestionably, to my mind, part of the basic structure of the Constitution … But what I wish to emphasise is that judicial review is a vital principle of our Constitution and it cannot be abrogated without affecting the basic structure of the Constitution. If by a constitutional amendment, the power of judicial review is taken away and it is provided that the validity of any law made by the legislature shall not be liable to be called in question on any ground, even if it is outside the legislative competence of the legislature or is violative of any fundamental rights, it would be nothing short of sub-version of the Constitution, for it would make a mockery of the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States and render the fundamental rights meaningless and futile.” (Emphasis added) Kingdom has not deterred the House of Lords from observing 28 the importance of judicial review as a constitutional fundamental. Per Lord Steyn in R (on the application of Jackson and others) v Attorney General [2005] UK HL 56:- “In exceptional circumstances involving an attempt to abolish judicial review or the ordinary role of the courts, the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords or a new Supreme Court may have to consider whether this is a constitutional fundamental which even a sovereign Parliament acting at the behest of a complaisant House of Commons cannot abolish.” Significance of Judicial Review as part of the basic structure High Courts cannot be truncated or infringed. Therefore, even if an administrative decision is declared to be final by a governing statute, an aggrieved party is not barred from resorting to the supervisory jurisdiction of the court. The existence of a finality clause merely bars an appeal to be filed by an aggrieved party. The Privy Council held that the Act contravened the 29 Constitution of Ceylon in usurping the judicial power of the judicature. Lord Pearce elaborated as follows (at 291-292):- “If such Acts as these were valid the judicial power could be wholly absorbed by the legislature and taken out of the hands of the judges. It is appreciated that the legislature had no such general intention. It was beset by a grave situation and it took grave measures to deal with it, thinking, one must presume, that it had power to do so and was acting rightly. But that consideration is irrelevant, and gives no validity to acts which infringe the Constitution. What is done once, if it be allowed, may be done again and in a lesser crisis and less serious circumstances. And thus judicial power may be eroded. Such an erosion is contrary to the clear intention of the Constitution. In their Lordships’ view the Acts were ultra vires and invalid.” (Emphasis added) Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law (2012 : Singapore, Academy Publishing) at 10.054). Boilmakers’ Society of Australia and ors [1957] AC 288 and Hinds v. The Queen [1977] AC 195 concerned the creation of 30 new courts to exercise judicial functions. In Attorney-General for Australia (supra), the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration was established pursuant to an act of Parliament and conferred with arbitral and judicial functions. The Privy Council held that the act was in contravention of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. As forcefully elucidated by Viscount Simmonds (at 313-314):- “… it would make a mockery of the Constitution to establish a body of persons for the exercise of non-judicial functions, to call that body a court and upon the footing that it is a court vest in it judicial power. In Alexander’s case, which has already been referred to, Griffith C.J. once and for all established this proposition in words that have not perhaps always been sufficiently regarded: ‘it is impossible,’ he said, ‘under the Constitution to confer such functions (i.e. judicial functions) upon any body other than a court, nor can the difficulty be avoided by designing a body, which is not in its essential character a court, by that name, or by calling the functions by another name. In short, any attempt to vest any part of the judicial power of the Commonwealth in any body other than a court is entirely ineffective.’ And in the same case the words came from Barton J.5: ‘Whether persons were judges, whether tribunals were courts, and whether they exercised what is now called judicial power, depended and depends on substance and not on mere name.” (Emphasis added) 31 that the test for the constitutionality of such laws does not depend on the label of the purported court, but its substance. The nature of the jurisdiction, the method of appointment, and the security of tenure for the judges who are to compose the new court must be regarded. Lord Diplock warned of the consequences if the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court could be transferred to other courts which do not adhere to the constitutional safeguards for independence:- “If, as contended by the Attorney-General, the words italicized above in section 97(1) entitled Parliament by an ordinary law to strip the Supreme Court of all jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases other than that expressly conferred upon it by section 25 and section 44, what would be left would be a court of such limited jurisdiction that the label ‘Supreme Court’ would be a false description. So too if all its jurisdiction (with those two exceptions) were exercisable concurrently by other courts composed of members of the lower judiciary. But more important, for this is the substance of the matter, the individual citizen could be deprived of the safeguards, which the makers of the Constitution regarded as necessary, of having important questions affecting his civil or criminal responsibilities determined by a court, however named, composed of judges whose independence from all local pressure by Parliament or by the executive was guaranteed by a security of tenure more absolute than that provided by the Constitution for judges of inferior courts.” 32 Keong CJ held in Mohammad Faizal bin Sabtu v. Public Prosecutor [2012] SGHC 163 (at [17]):- “… the specific wording used in this Article [93 of the Singapore Constitution] has the effect of vesting the judicial power of Singapore exclusively in the Supreme Court and the Subordinate Courts, and not in any entity which is not a ‘court’ being, at common law, an entity with certain characteristics. The reference to ‘court’, in Article 93 would include any statutory body or tribunal having the characteristics of a court. All Commonwealth Constitutions appear to follow this practice of vesting the judicial power exclusively in the courts….In the Singapore context, the exclusivity of the judicial power is safeguarded by the provisions in Part VIII of the Singapore Constitution, which are designed to secure the independence of our judiciary.” SCJ in Public Prosecutor v. Dato’ Yap Peng [1987] 2 MLJ 311 :- “…any other view would ex necessitate rei result in relegating the provisions of Article 121(1) vesting the judicial power of the Federation in the curial entities specified to no more than a teasing illusion, like a munificent bequest in a pauper’s will.” 33